He once crucified a general who disagreed with his campaign plans. Alexander the Great brought it from there to the eastern Mediterranean countries in the 4th century BC, and the Phoenicians introduced it to Rome in the 3rd century BC. His legs were found broken, possibly to hasten his death. [19] Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned person perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post. ", "Columbia University page of Pierre Barbet on Crucifixion", Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, by Donald G. Kyle, Stavros, Scolops (σταῦρός, σκόλοψ). "A Brief History of Crucifixion in the Ancient World." [43] The titulus would also be fastened to the cross to notify onlookers of the person's name and crime as they hung on the cross, further maximizing the public impact.[91][98]. [57] He wrote that the condemned would have severe difficulty inhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the chest muscles and lungs. Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: ana-stauro (ἀνασταυρόω), from stauros (which in today's Greek only means "cross" but which in antiquity was used of any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and apo-tumpanizo (ἀποτυμπανίζω) "crucify on a plank",[5] together with anaskolopizo (ἀνασκολοπίζω "impale"). This barbarity, unusual on the part of Greeks, may be explained by the enormity of the outrage or by Athenian deference to local feeling. [25] Elsewhere he says, "It is a crime to bind a Roman citizen; to scourge him is a wickedness; to put him to death is almost parricide. According to religious tradition, Jesus was 33 years old at the time of his crucifixion. [42] This would cause the person to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. [88] Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals. In some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution. [66] However, in his Histories, ix.120–122, the Greek writer Herodotus describes the execution of a Persian general at the hands of Athenians in about 479 BC: "They nailed him to a plank and hung him up ... this Artayctes who suffered death by crucifixion. [32] Speaking of the generic execution cross, not specifically of that on which Jesus died, Irenaeus (c. 130–202), a Christian writer, describes it as composed of an upright and a transverse beam, sometimes with a small projection in the upright. [22][23] Despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape criticism by some eminent Roman orators. ", Seneca, Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", in, "The ... oldest depiction of a crucifixion ... was uncovered by archaeologists more than a century ago on the, "It was his body that tyrants took for a model, his shape that they imitated, when they set up the erections on which men are crucified" (, "The very form of the cross, too, has five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails" (. When, in 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes, Amnesty International wrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion. Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites. Some scholars, including Frederick Zugibe, posit other causes of death. Learn Religions, Aug. 25, 2020, learnreligions.com/crucifixion-history-700749. Six people were crucified in the following manner: their hands and feet nailed to a scaffold; then their eyes were extracted with a blunt hook; and in this condition they were left to expire; two died in the course of four days; the rest were liberated, but died of mortification on the sixth or seventh day. Haas had also identified a scratch on the inner surface of the right radius bone of the forearm, close to the wrist. [a] Crucifixion was such a gruesome and humiliating way to die that the subject was somewhat of a taboo in Roman culture, and few crucifixions were specifically documented. Seneca the Younger wrote: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet".[15]. It was one of many different ways to inflict a horrible, lengthy and excruciatingly painful death. Haas, Nicu. [84][85][86], Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most painful and humiliating death imaginable. https://www.learnreligions.com/crucifixion-history-700749 (accessed January 22, 2021). "[61] Josephus gives no details of the method or duration of the crucifixion of his three friends before their reprieve. Rolando del Campo, a carpenter in Pampanga, vowed to be crucified every Good Friday for 15 years if God would carry his wife through a difficult childbirth,[154] while in San Pedro Cutud, Ruben Enaje has been crucified 32 times. [36] Justin Martyr (c. 100–165) sees the cross of Christ represented in the crossed spits used in roasting the Passover Lamb: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. Ringer Edwards, an Australian prisoner of war, was crucified for killing cattle, along with two others. Crassus ordered the crucifixion of 6,000 of Spartacus' followers who had been hunted down and captured after his defeat in battle. [133] Execution by hanging is described as follows: "In execution by hanging, the prisoner will be hung on a hanging truss which should look like a cross, while his (her) back is toward the cross, and (s)he faces the direction of Mecca [in Saudi Arabia], and his (her) legs are vertical and distant from the ground. Alexander the Great and his generals introduced the practice to the Phoenicians, Egyptians and Carthaginians. The word crucifixion comes from the Latin word crucifixus which means "to fix to a cross." However, many of Haas' findings have been challenged. [citation needed], In other cases, a crucifixion is only simulated within a passion play, as in the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833,[157] and in the more famous Oberammergau Passion Play. Alexander the Great and his generals introduced the practice to the Phoenicians, Egyptians and Carthaginians. He deduced from the form of the scratch, as well as from the intact wrist bones, that a nail had been driven into the forearm at that position. [35] Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) is another early writer who gives the same interpretation of the numeral used for 300. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. History affirms that crucifixion became common under the rule of Alexander the Great who, executed 2,000 Tyrians after conquering their city. Crucifixion: In the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross. In a reported case from July 1805 a man named Mattio Lovat attempted to crucify himself at a public street in Venice, Italy. The use of the Christian cross as a Christian symbol began after the time of the Constantine, which occurred three centuries after the coming of Christ. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. However, it was originally seen as a … In Roman-style crucifixion, the condemned could take up to a few days to die, but death was sometimes hastened by human action. Also, since at least the mid-19th century, a group of flagellants in New Mexico, called Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light"), have annually conducted reenactments of Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross.[158]. Mariano Sayno / husayno.com / Getty Images. (2020, August 25). Four persons were crucified, viz. The remains included a heel bone with a nail driven through it from the side. [27] This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses. : Alexander the Great brought it to the eastern Mediterranean countries in the fourth century B.C.E.… In cases like this, the legs and feet of the criminals begin to swell and mortify at the expiration of three or four days; some are said to live in this state for a fortnight, and expire at last from fatigue and mortification. In the history of torture techniques, crucifixion remains among the cruelest because of the protracted and incremental agony of the victim. [42], During the death march, the prisoner, probably[99] still nude after the scourging,[98] would be led through the most crowded streets[90] bearing a titulus – a sign board proclaiming the prisoner's name and crime. Cicero, for example, described crucifixion as "a most cruel and disgusting punishment",[24] and suggested that "the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen's body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears". During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified a Canadian soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. II. Although the ancient historians Josephus and Appian refer to the crucifixion of thousands of Jews by the Romans, there is only a single archaeological discovery of a crucified body of a Jew dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus. [96][97], Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and his soldiers. History of Crucifixion Crucifixion did not begin with the Romans, but it was a method of execution that had developed centuries earlier in the ancient near East. [152], Sculpture construction: Crucifixion, homage to Mondrian, by Barbara Hepworth, United Kingdom (2007), Allegory of Poland (1914–1918), postcard by Sergey Solomko, Car-float at the feast of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos, Colonia Doctores, Mexico City (2011), Antisemitic American political cartoon, Sound Money magazine, April 15, 1896 issue, Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C. (1970), The Catholic Church frowns upon self-crucifixion as a form of devotion: "Penitential practices leading to self-crucifixion with nails are not to be encouraged. The Greeks and Macedonians are also believed to have learned the practice of crucifixion from the Persians. History of crucifixion and archeological proof of the cross, as opposed to a stake. The survivors, more than 6,000 slaves, were crucified along the Via Appia, the road between Rome and Capua. In antiquity crucifixion was considered one of the most brutal and shameful modes of death. He survived 63 hours before being let down. Method of capital punishment in which the victim is tied or nailed to a large wooden beam and left to hang until eventual death, Two illustrations from editions of a book by, A nineteenth-century depiction of the crucifixion of rebel leaders by the. [87][88] It was used to punish slaves, pirates, and enemies of the state. [91] On the other hand, the person was often deliberately kept alive as long as possible to prolong their suffering and humiliation, so as to provide the maximum deterrent effect. Since death does not follow immediately on crucifixion, survival after a short period of crucifixion is possible, as in the case of those who choose each year as a devotional practice to be non-lethally crucified. Photo: Courtesy Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. Crucifixion was usually intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful (hence the term excruciating, literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. However, Zugibe's positioning of the test subjects' feet is not supported by any archaeological or historical evidence.[60]. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of. [1][2][3] It was used as a punishment by the Romans. Crucifixion was an ancient method of execution in which the victim's hands and feet were bound and nailed to a cross. "[67] The Commentary on Herodotus by How and Wells remarks: "They crucified him with hands and feet stretched out and nailed to cross-pieces; cf. [106] The preference for crucifixion over the other punishments mentioned in the verse or for their combination (which Sadakat Kadri has called "Islam's equivalent of the hanging, drawing and quartering that medieval Europeans inflicted on traitors"[109]) is subject to "complex and contested rules" in classical jurisprudence. He also says that the shape of the letter T (the Greek letter tau) was that of the wooden instrument used for crucifying. In honor of Christ's death, the practice of crucifixion was abolished by Constantine the Great, the first Christian Emperor, in AD 337. The Romans made crucifixion … Plutarch Fabius Maximus 6.3 "Hannibal now perceived the mistake in his position, and its peril, and crucified the native guides who were responsible for it. [122], It has been reported that crucifixion was used in several cases against the German civil population of East Prussia when it was occupied by Soviet forces at the end of the Second World War. For instance, it was subsequently determined that the scratches in the wrist area were non-traumatic – and, therefore, not evidence of crucifixion – while reexamination of the heel bone revealed that the two heels were not nailed together, but rather separately to either side of the upright post of the cross.[65]. "[22] One source claims that for Jews (apparently not for others), a man would be crucified with his back to the cross as is traditionally depicted, while a woman would be nailed facing her cross, probably with her back to onlookers, or at least with the stipes providing some semblance of modesty if viewed from the front. Learn Religions. 2. crucify afresh, Ep.Hebr.6.6. [144] In most of these cases of "crucifixion" the victims are shot first then their bodies are displayed[145] but there have also been reports of "crucifixion" preceding shootings or decapitations[146] as well as a case where a man was said to have been "crucified alive for eight hours" with no indication of whether he died. Felix Carey, a missionary in Burma from 1806 to 1812,[118] wrote the following:[119]. Spartacus was killed, and his men were defeated. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb. [17] The Roman historian Tacitus records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the Esquiline Gate,[18] and had a specific area reserved for the execution of slaves by crucifixion. Crucifixion was considered one of the most brutal and humiliating modes of death. in Rom. "[56] The Romans sometimes broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial. The test subjects had no difficulty breathing during experiments, but did suffer rapidly increasing pain,[58][59] which is consistent with the Roman use of crucifixion to achieve a prolonged, agonizing death. Often the victim was subjected to various forms of public torture before the actual crucifixion. Among those executed were Saints Paulo Miki, Philip of Jesus and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines. The crucifixion of Jesus is central to Christianity, and the cross (sometimes depicting Jesus nailed to it) is the main religious symbol for many Christian churches. ", Learn Religions uses cookies to provide you with a great user experience. [124], Several people have been subjected to crucifixion in Saudi Arabia in the 2000s, although on occasion they were first beheaded and then crucified. Definition of Crucifixion, an Ancient Method of Execution, Different Forms and Types of Crucifixions, Holy Week Timeline: From Palm Sunday to the Resurrection, Introduction to the Catholic Religion: Beliefs, Practices and History. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was sent to an asylum, where he died a year later. [77], The hypothesis that the Ancient Roman custom of crucifixion may have developed out of a primitive custom of arbori suspendere—hanging on an arbor infelix ("inauspicious tree") dedicated to the gods of the nether world—is rejected by William A. Oldfather, who shows that this form of execution (the supplicium more maiorum, punishment in accordance with the custom of our ancestors) consisted of suspending someone from a tree, not dedicated to any particular gods, and flogging him to death. Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times, when it was considered one of the most brutal and shameful modes of death. The most common term is stauroo (σταυρόω), "to crucify", occurring 46 times; sustauroo (συσταυρόω), "to crucify with" or "alongside" occurs five times, while anastauroo (ἀνασταυρόω), "to crucify again" occurs only once at the Epistle to the Hebrews 6:6. Additionally, a piece of acacia wood was located between the bones and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the condemned from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. [69] The fragmentary Aramaic Testament of Levi (DSS 4Q541) interprets in column 6: "God ... (partially legible)-will set ... right errors. In 2016, Enaje decided that would be his last crucifixion. Crucifixion (or impalement), in one form or another, was used by Persians, Carthaginians, and Macedonians. [20] Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities. The first known practice of crucifixion was by the Persians. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the 1st Canadian Division. Top image: Main: depiction of the crucifixion/death of Jesus Christ and the thieves, Gestas and Dismas. The Romans learned the practice from the Carthaginians and quickly became very efficient and skillful at it. "Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar". A foot-rest (suppedaneum) attached to the cross, perhaps for the purpose of taking the person's weight off the wrists, is sometimes included in representations of the crucifixion of Jesus but is not discussed in ancient sources. [145], The human rights group Karen Women Organization documented a case of Tatmadaw forces crucifying several Karen villagers in 2000 in the Dooplaya District in Burma's Kayin State. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of Trajan or Hadrian (late 1st century to early 2nd century AD). [41] Ancient sources also mention the sedile, a small seat attached to the front of the cross, about halfway down,[42] which could have served a similar purpose. "A Brief History of Crucifixion in the Ancient World." It's an ancient form of execution meant to inflict the greatest amount of pain possible on the condemned person as they're nailed or tied to a large wooden cross and left hanging until they die. [63][64] Nicu Haas, an anthropologist at the Hebrew University Medical School in Jerusalem, examined the ossuary and discovered that it contained a heel bone with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the man had been crucified. [39], A possibility that does not require tying is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, through the soft tissue, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna).[40]. In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means "impale".[6][7][8]. Numerous sources, both Christian and non-Christian, substantiate the event. [54] Death could result from any combination of those factors or from other causes, including sepsis following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the scourging that often preceded crucifixion, eventual dehydration, or animal predation. A first inaccurate account of the length of the nail led some to believe that it had been driven through both heels, suggesting that the man had been placed in a sort of sidesaddle position, but the true length of the nail, 11.5 cm (4.53 inches), suggests instead that in this case of crucifixion the heels were nailed to opposite sides of the upright. By using Learn Religions, you accept our. [98] First, the condemned would be stripped naked[98] and scourged. Crucifixion was a warning to all, karmic retribution written by the state: “This is what you get when you mess with us.” Ancient History of Crucifixion. The first known practice of crucifixion was by the Persians. [42] The victims of crucifixion were stripped naked[42][89] and put on public display[90][91] while they were slowly tortured to death so that they would serve as a spectacle and an example. Translation by Aubrey de Selincourt. The only exception was reported by the historian Josephus when the Jewish high priest Alexander Jannaeus (BC 103-76) ordered the crucifixion of 800 enemy Pharisees. [55][56], A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that, when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. [46], The length of time required to reach death could range from hours to days depending on method, the victim's health, and the environment. Known in Japanese as haritsuke (磔), crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Medes and the Persians practiced this gruesome torture method as well as the Carthaginians and the Egyptians, and later it was adopted among the Greeks and finally the Romans in the first century. [29] The most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion depicts an individual on a T-shaped cross. History affirms that crucifixion became common under the rule of Alexander the Great who, executed 2,000 Tyrians after conquering their city. The Romans made crucifixion … Those which I saw, were liberated at the end of three or four days. The term later came to refer specifically to a cross. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration. The point of the nail had olive wood fragments on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olive wood or on an olive tree. Victims were sometimes left on display after death as a warning to any other potential criminals. Alexander the Great is reputed to have crucified 2,000 survivors from his siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre,[73] as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's friend Hephaestion. A less compelling episode is the tale of Julius Caesar's capture by Cilician pirates when he was aged 25 or so in 75 BCE. [88][105], Islam spread in a region where many societies, including the Persian and Roman empires, had used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels, robbers and criminal slaves. [106] The main methods of crucifixion are:[106], Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days. Prospegnumi (προσπήγνυμι), "to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify" occurs only once at the Acts of the Apostles 2:23. The significance was that this was the Filipino’s 33rd time. [30], Second-century writers who speak of the execution cross describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched, not attached to a single stake: Lucian speaks of Prometheus as crucified "above the ravine with his hands outstretched". The upright wooden cross was the … times, affix to a cross, crucify, Plb. Jul 22, 2019 - Crucifixion was a common and especially cruel type of torture and execution in the ancient world long before the time of Christ. The Romans used different types of crosses: T-shaped, X-shaped, and sometimes just trees. not nailed but tied with their hands and feet stretched out at full length, in an erect posture. vii.33. The Lexham Bible Dictionary. But what exactly is a crucifixion? Probably originating with the Assyrians and Babylonians, it was used systematically by the Persians in the 6th century BC. Justin Martyr calls the seat a cornu, or "horn,"[101] leading some scholars to believe it may have had a pointed shape designed to torment the crucified person. Pre-sterilised nails are driven through the palm of the hand between the bones, while there is a footrest to which the feet are nailed. "[37], In popular depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus (possibly because in translations of John 20:25 the wounds are described as being "in his hands"), Jesus is shown with nails in his hands. There was a strong social stigma associated with crucifixion, a punishment reserved for traitors, captive armies, slaves and the worst of criminals. [108], The corpus of hadith provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to Muhammad himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph Umar (applied to two slaves who murdered their mistress). [78] Tertullian mentions a 1st-century AD case in which trees were used for crucifixion,[79] but Seneca the Younger earlier used the phrase infelix lignum (unfortunate wood) for the transom ("patibulum") or the whole cross. ; identical with ἀνασκολοπίζω, 9.78: – Pass., Th. In the history of crucifixion, the death of Jesus of Nazareth stands out as the best-known example by far. There is an ancient record of one person who survived a crucifixion that was intended to be lethal, but that was interrupted. Alexander the Great introduced the practice throughout his empire. [16] A whole cross would weigh well over 135 kg (300 lb), but the crossbeam would not be as burdensome, weighing around 45 kg (100 lb). Originating in Persia, crucifixion then spread to the Assyrians, Scythians, Taurians, Thracians, the people of India, the Germans, Celts, Britons, Numidians, and the Carthaginians. Of course, the definitive crucifixion event in history was the death of Jesus Christ in 33 CE. ... (partially legible)-He will judge ... revealed sins. [116] It is believed to have been suggested to the Japanese by the introduction of Christianity into the region,[116] although similar types of punishment had been used as early as the Kamakura period. "[134], Sudan's penal code, based upon the government's interpretation of shari'a,[135][136][137] includes execution followed by crucifixion as a penalty. There may have been considerable variation in the position in which prisoners were nailed to their crosses and how their bodies were supported while they died. In New Testament times, the Romans used this tortuous method of execution as a means of exerting authority and control over the population. Crucifixion (or impalement), in one form or another, was used by Persians, Carthaginians, and Macedonians. Before the Persians, the Assyrians were known to impale people. Cicero (AD 106–43) described it as a "most cruel and disgusting penalty. During the Roman Empire, crucifixion was primarily reserved for traitors, deserters, foreigners, despised enemies, captive armies, slaves, the most violent offenders, and those guilty of high treason. "[22], At times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex. "[153] Despite this, the practice persists in the Philippines, where some Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday to imitate the sufferings of Christ. Zugibe suspended test subjects with their arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical. It was also practiced by the Assyrians, Scythians, Indians, Germans, and from the earliest times by the Greeks and the Romans. [143] The pictures, originally posted to Twitter by a student at Oxford University, were retweeted by a Twitter account owned by a known member of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) causing major media outlets to incorrectly attribute the origin of the post to the militant group. Crucifixion in antiquity was actually a fairly common punishment, but there were no known physical remains from a crucifixion. The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judea, most likely in either AD 30 or AD 33.Jesus' crucifixion is described in the four canonical gospels, referred to in the New Testament epistles, attested to by other ancient sources, and is established as a historical event confirmed by non-Christian sources, although there is no consensus among historians on the exact details. [127][128], Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 years old for taking part in an anti-government protests in Saudi Arabia during the Arab Spring. "Crucifixion." New Testament Greek uses four verbs, three of them based upon stauros (σταυρός), usually translated "cross". 1.11.5, al., Plu.Fab.6, al. Crucifixion, the Assyrians and Babylonians, it was used as a Christian symbol its... After conquering their city [ 3 ] it was used systematically used Persians! 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Was one of the cross, the son of Hagakol ' 57 ] he wrote that the were. Carrying their own patibula to the Egyptians ( Genesis 40:19 ) and the Persians ] in may 2014, al-Nimr. The cruelest because of the 1st Canadian Division Classical Islamic jurisprudence applies the verse 5:33 chiefly to highway robbers as! Main sources for accounts of crucifixions by historians are few with their private parts impaled to days. Antiquity was actually a fairly common punishment, but death was sometimes hastened human! Enough for it with their private parts impaled, this form of capital punishment shapes! As amulets with perceived medicinal qualities central element in several execution rituals in both extent and severity Lovat. To a cross, the practice to the place of execution as a punishment by the Persians We that...